Study The Church

Middle Ages Timeline: 400 - 1500 (detailed)

c. 400	Augustine wrote The Confessions
410	Rome is defeated and sacked by Alaric I, leader of the Visigoths. The last time Rome had been sacked was in 387 BC. Constantinople, the new capital of the Roman Empire since 330, would not fail until 1453 (to the Muslims).
c. 415	Augustine wrote The City of God in response to the defeat of Rome. In this book, Augustine created the idea of “Just War” and gave this explanation: "They who have waged war in obedience to the divine command, or in conformity with His laws, have represented in their persons the public justice or the wisdom of government, and in this capacity have put to death wicked men; such persons have by no means violated the commandment, "You shall not kill."
418	Pelagius died sometime soon after this year. The year of his death is unknown, and could have been decades later; this is the last year he was known to be alive.
	The Big Picture: Pelagianism Pelagius is significant because of one theological idea: he believed that humans can make the initial step toward accepting God without any assistance or draw from God. Augustine became involved in a lengthy disagreement with Pelagius and his followers: Augustine believed that God has to initially draw humans to him and that humans can only respond, not initiate. What was the problem? Pelagius concluded that humans have the responsibility of choosing between good and evil and are not guided by the Holy Spirit or any other aspect of God. Therefore, the purpose of Christ was to give instruction and a good example, not to provide salvation. Pelagianism was condemned as a heresy by Augustine and others, and was eventually defeated in the Council of Ephesus in 431.
420	Jerome died. He translated the Bible into Latin; it was known as the Vulgate and was the official version for European Christians until the Protestant Reformation of the 1500s.
430	Augustine died. The Vandals were at that point besieging Rome, although they would not take Rome until 455.
	The Big Picture: Augustine's Impact Through involvement with the Donatists, the fall of Rome, and Pelagius, Augustine developed theological ideas which would greatly impact Christianity. Among his ideas: the validity of a rite of the church does not depend on the spiritual purity of the clergy but on the church in which it is performed; the concept of a just war; and the initiative to respond to God must initiate from God, humans are not capable of responding to God from their own initiative--this was an early form of predestination.
431	Council of Ephesus. This was the third of the twenty-one major Church Councils. Convened by Emperor Theodosius II in response to the Nestorian Controversy. Nestorius' ideas were condemned and he was excommunicated. He believed that Christ consisted of two separate Persons, one Divine and one Human, in one body. The Church belief was that Christ was one Person, fully God and fully human, in the one body. In addition, the Council gave approval to refer to Mary as "theotokos," "God-bearer."
435	John Cassian died. He began a monastery in France and wrote on the proper lifestyle of monks and the proper administration of a monastery. He greatly influence Benedict of Nursia's Rule, which is the basis of much Western monasticism. He taught a type of Christian spirituality common among the desert fathers in Egypt: the three step process (which took years to accomplish) included: "purgatio" where monks sought to gain control of "the flesh" by prayer and ascetic practices; "illuminatio" where monks sought to practice the holiness as described in the Gospels; and "unitio" where monks sought the bond with God described in the "Song of Solomon/Songs."
451	Council of Chalcedon. This was the fourth of the twenty-one major Church Councils. Convened by Emperor Marcian in response to the Eutychian (also called Monophysitism) Controversy. Eutychius was removed from his position of leadership over a large monastery in Constantinople and exiled. He believed that Christ only contained a Divine Nature. This was a direct contradiction of the Council of Ephesus, which stated that Christ was fully God and fully human. In addition, the Western representatives rejected the idea that the head of the church in Constantinople be given the title "Patriarch" and that it be made second in authority to the church in Rome.
452	Attila the Hun started to capture Rome but changed his mind after meeting Pope Leo I.
	The Big Picture: Different Identities for the Western and Eastern Churches While it is difficult to determine the first difference between the Western and Eastern Churches, it is certain that the break which would occur in 1054 began well before that. In the Council of Chalcedon the differing ideas are apparent. The Constantinople Church recognized the supremacy of the Roman Church' but wanted some recognition of its own unique worth. Other factors also indicated a future rupture: many smaller Councils consisted of either all Western or all Eastern participants, the ascetic movement began in the East (Egypt) and was appropriated in the West, Rome was defeated whereas Constantinople remained strong, and many of the controversies in this time period originated in the East, which indicates more divergent ideas of what it means to be Christian than in the West.
455	Rome is again defeated and sacked, this time by the Vandals. They were Arian.
459	Simeon Stylites died. He was the first of the Stylites, also known as "pillar saints." He lived on top of various heights of pillars, eventually living on one which was app. 60 feet tall. He stayed there until his death. He inspired others to do the same, with records indicating some existed as late as the tenth century. To read more about the Stylite movement, go here.
c. 460	St. Patrick died. Although born in Britain, he was sent to Ireland as a bishop and remained there his entire life. To learn more about St. Patrick and read an excerpt from his autobiography, go here.
461	Pope Leo I, the Great, died. He is credited with consolidating the power of the papacy during the time of turmoil following the fall of Rome, at which he was present. He enlarged the authority of the papacy into Northern Africa, Gaul (France), and Spain.
476	The Western Roman Empire comes to an end when Odoacer, a German general, forced Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, to resign. Odoacer became the king of Italy; he held Arian beliefs. The Middle Ages are considered to have begun in this year.
483	Simplicius died and Felix III became Pope. One of his grandsons would be Pope Gregory the Great.
484	Pope Felix III excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople, causing a split between the Western and Eastern Churches. It resulted as a consequence of the Eastern Christians drifting toward monophysitism (Jesus had one nature, which his human nature being absorbed into his divine nature). This split is known as the Acacian Schism (Acacius was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 471 to 489) and only lasted until 519, but shows the volatile nature of the relationship between Christians in the West and the East. The longer schism would occur in 1054.
492	Pope Gelasius died. He was pope from 492. He believed that the Roman bishop was superior to the Constantinople bishop (in other words, that the Pope was superior to the Patriarch).
496	Clovis, the Frankish (French) king, was baptized. 3000 of Clovis' soldiers were also baptized. This critical event would eventually lead to Christianity spreading throughout Europe under Charlemagne in the late 700's/early 800's.
Early 500s	Dionysius Exiguus (d. c. 550) introduced the method of dating years. He began with year one as the year of Jesus' birth. Later archaeologists realized that he was wrong by 4-7 years, which makes the birth of Jesus between 4-7 BC.
527	Justinian I became the Roman Emperor. He reconquered North Africa and Italy and built many basilicas. (See the year 537 below.)
532	Boniface II died and John II became Pope the next year. He was the first pope to change his name, Mercurius being his birth name and being the name of a pagan god.
537	Hagia Sophia consecrated. Known as "Holy Wisdom" (Greek "Hagia Sophia"; Latin "Sancta Sophia"), this church was the finest example of Byzantine architecture and was the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople for almost 1000 years. Constantinople was conquered by Muslims in 1453 and it was converted to a mosque. In 1935 it became a museum.
550	Benedict of Nursia died. He is known as the "Father of Western Monasticism." During his lifetime he established twelve monasteries with twelve monks apiece. He also wrote a Rule (c. 540), which contains regulations for maintaining a monastery and the monastic life; this Rule became exceedingly popular. To read one of Benedict's chapters, the one on living a holy life, go here.
553	Council of Constantinople II: the third of the Ecumenical Councils This Council was called to combat three different individuals, all of whom were accused of Nestorianism: Theodore of Mopsuestia (352-428), Theodoret (393-466), and against the letter of Ibas (Bishop of Edessa from 435-457)
565	Justinian I died.
570	Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born in Mecca in present-day Saudi Arabia.
589	At the Third Council of Toledo in this year, the Filioque clause was added to the Nicene Creed. "Filioque" means "and the Son" in Latin and was added after "the Holy Ghost proceeds . . . from the Father" so that the Holy Spirit is seen to have had a double procession (from the Father and the Son) instead of a single procession. This was a major point of contention between Western and Eastern Christianity, with the West holding to double procession and the East holding to single procession. The Eastern churches argued that this formula was not agreed to at the Third Ecumenical Council, the Council of Constantinople in 381.
590	Pope Pelagius II died and Gregory I became Pope. He became the second pope known as "the Great." The first was Leo I who died in 461. During his pontificate, Rome regained stability. He also created the music which would bear his name, Gregorian chants. [Personal note, Protestant scholars are divided over whether Leo I was the first pope or if it was Gregory I. I believe it was Gregory. ("Pope" in the sense people think of today when you say "pope.")] Gregory did not desire the papacy, to learn more about his life, click here.
596	Pope Gregory I sends Augustine (of Canterbury) to England to reestablish Christianity. To learn more about Augustine's mission, and why he settled in Canterbury, click here.
604	Pope Gregory I died.
632	Muhammad died.
638	Caliph Omar entered Jerusalem and the city became Muslim. It would remain Muslim until 1099 when the Crusaders invaded and captured it. More info: To learn about the history of Jerusalem from the first time it is mentioned in history to the present, go here.
649	John Climacus died. His Ladder of Paradise or Ladder of Divine Ascent is considered a spiritual classic.
663	The Emperor Constans II visited Rome, the first emperor to visit in over 200 years. This illustrated the friendly terms between the West and the East.
680-1	Council of Constantinople III. This Council condemned as heretical the belief monothelitism (Jesus had two natures but one will) (from the Greek meaning "one will"). It defined Jesus as both divine and human (two wills in one body).
690	The oldest known copy of the Vulgate (official Latin Catholic Bible from the Middle Ages) dates from around this year; it is only missing the book of Baruch, which is in the Catholic Deuterocanonicals and which Protestants consider Apocrypha. (Click here to learn more about the Deuterocanonicals.) It is called the Codex Amiatinus and is currently located in a library in Florence.
691	The Dome of the Rock was completed in Jerusalem. This building houses the rock which is the third most holy site for many Muslims. It is located on the spot where the Jewish Temple stood. This site is a point of contention between Muslims and Jews today; the Jews want to rebuild the Temple on this spot, but the Dome of the Rock stands in their way.
726	Emperor Leo III issued a statement that all images were idols and ordered their destruction.
732	Charles Martel defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours (France). This stopped the advance of the Muslims into western Europe.
735	Bede died. The title "Venerable" was given to him about 100 years later. He is considered the father of English Church History and wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
756	Pepin the Short gave Pope Stephen II authority over Rome and the surrounding areas. This was the beginning of the Papal States.
754	Boniface died. He is consider the "Apostle of Germany"; he was born in England and sent to Germany by Pope Gregory II. He helped unify Europe by working for a relationship between the papacy and the Carolingian family. He famously cut down the Donar Oak, or Thor's Oak, which was a sacred site for the German pagan worshippers. Boniface challenged the pagan gods to kill him if he cut down the tree, and when he did and was not killed, the Germans in that area agreed to accept Christianity. Boniface built a chapel dedicated to Peter at that spot out of the wood from the Oak.
768	Charlemagne became King of the Franks.
781	Alcuin met Charlemagne; Alcuin became his religious and educational adviser and would be the inspiration for the Carolingian Renaissance.
787	Council of Nicea II. The council reversed the ruling by Leo III (see 726) and established that icons could be venerated.
787	The Carolingian Renaissance began when Charlemagne ordered that all monasteries include teaching and study. It resulted in an increase in knowledge, education, copying of manuscripts, cultural awareness, art, architecture, and biblical studies.
800	Christmas day: Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. This was probably a surprise to Charlemagne and a power play for the pope; to find out more click here. In the people's minds, this illustrated that the pope was more powerful than the emperor. This tension between spiritual and temporal power in Europe continued until the Reformation of the 1500s. Nevertheless, Charlemagne greatly increased the scope of the popes' influence since all his conquered territories were Catholic and therefore these people were subject to the pope. This territory included present-day northern Spain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, western Germany, Luxemburg, Switzerland, western Austria, and northern Italy (which included Rome). In addition, Charlemagne institute a wave of learning in his empire which became known as the Carolingian Renaissance. This movement was possible because of the stability which Charlemagne produced in most of Europe. It resulted in an increase in knowledge, education, copying of manuscripts, cultural awareness, art, architecture, and biblical studies.
c. 700s or 800s	The Donation of Constantine was fabricated sometime in these two centuries. It purported to be a document in which Constantine gave Pope Sylvester I (d. 335) superiority over Antioch, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem along with making the Pope judge of all clergy. The document was proved false in the 1400s.
	The Big Picture: Pope vs. Emperor Up to this point, popes had struggled with two authority issues: authority over the patriarch in Constantinople (the Eastern half of Christianity) and authority over political leaders. The issue with Eastern Christianity will ebb and flow until 1054 when the two halves separate for good. The issue with political leaders intensifies with the crowning of Charlemagne by the pope (in which he shows his authority of the political realm since the greater crowns the lesser) and the Donation of Constantine. The papacy will continue to exert more and more authority until the Unam Sanctum of 1302, which declared that the pope was the supreme spiritual head of the Church on the earth, with the insinuation that popes were to be obeyed without question.
814	Charlemagne died. His son, Louis the Pious, ruled the empire until his death in 840.
840	Louis the Pious died. Over the next three years his three sons fought a civil war which culminated in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
842	The Emperor Theophilus' death ended the iconoclastic controversy. The Patriarch Methodius celebrated a feast in honor of the icons.
843	The Treaty of Verdun divided Charlemagne's empire between the three sons of Louis the Pious. They agreed to split the Empire founded by their grandfather Charlemagne into three parts. This further weakened the unity of Europe which had been enjoyed during the time of Charlemagne.
846	Muslims sack the area outside the Roman gates. In this year Muslims worked their way up the western coast of Italy and landed close to Rome. They did not take over Rome but sacked the churches outside of the city gates. This included St. Peter's Basilica. They did not stay to complete the conquest.
849	Muslims again threaten Rome but were repelled. A Muslim navy moved toward Rome but were defeated in the Battle of Ostia (a naval battle).
897	Pope Stephen VI shows the beginning of the low point in the papacy. He was elected in 896 and had Formosus (who was pope plus one ahead of him) exhumed and placed on trial as a corpse. It was subsequently thrown into the Tiber. Stephen was eventually imprisoned and then strangled to death.
897	The reign of the next pope, Romanus, was only four months long: August to December. He may have been deposed and became a monk in order to end his pontificate.
897	The reign of the next pope, Theodore II, was only one month long; he was elected as pope and died in the month of December. He had the body of Formosus reburied.
	**Notice the short reign of most popes in this century. Also notice the popes who were elected at a young age or were killed while in office.
900-903	Benedict IV was pope.
903	Leo V elected pope: pope for 30 days. He was murdered, possibly strangled by Christopher, a man who also claimed to be pope, or on orders of Sergius III, who became pope.
904-11	The pontificate of Pope Sergius III. He is considered to be the beginning of the “pornocracy,” that period of great decline in the moral authority of the popes. The record of his rule contains many inconsistencies, which would lead one to conclude that at the very least it was a tumultuous time.
910	The Benedictine Abbey at Cluny was founded. Berno was placed in charge of the Abbey and he gave the Benedictine monks a more strict form. This was an attempt to reform Benedictine monasticism. One innovation was to develop offshoots of the main Abbey yet each was connected to the Abbey; previously Benedictine monasteries had been independent. The Cluny reform grew quickly in the latter half of this century and into the next century as new monasteries were founded and existing monasteries joined the movement. By the early 1100s, Cluny was a major center of Christianity in Europe, second only to Rome, and had 314 monasteries. To learn more about this movement, go here.
	The Big Picture: The Cluny Reform The Cluny Reform grew quickly and concurrently with the downgrading of the papacy in this century. In some aspects, the Cluny Reform provided that which the papacy often did not in this century: a moral grounding and spiritual leadership.
911-913	Reign of Pope Anastasius III; pope for 2 years.
913-914	Reign of Pope Lando; pope for 1 year.
914-928	Reign of Pope John X. He was one of the first popes to lead an army into battle, in 916. He was eventually placed in prison due to a political situation involving a noble family and died in prison.
928	Reign of Pope Leo VI; pope for less than 1 year.
929-931	Reign of Pope Stephen VII; pope for 3 years.
931-935	Reign of Pope John XI. He became pope when he was around 20 years old.
936-939	Reign of Pope Leo VII; pope for 4 years.
939-942	Reign of Pope Stephen VIII; pope for 4 years.
942-946	Reign of Pope Marinus II; pope for 4 years.
946-955	Reign of Pope Agapetus II. His pontificate last longer than many other popes in this time period; he is considered a rare "good" pope during this century, as opposed to others who did not last long because of the intrigues of their offices.
955-964	Reign of Pope John XII. He became pope at 18 years of age. During his pontificate he committed adultery so often that his palace was called a "whorehouse." He was accused of killing a subdeacon. The Emporer Otto I deposed John XII, but before he could find him, John died.
962	St. Bernard opens a hospice (place for travelers) in the Alps. Eventually the St. Bernard dog would be used to rescue travelers who became lost in the snow. Read more here.
964	Reign of Pope Benedict V; pope for 1 year. The Emperor Otto I did not approve of his papacy, so he was demoted to a deacon and died in 966.
964-965	Reign of Leo VIII; pope for 1 year.
965-972	Reign of Pope John XIII. During his pontificate, he became so disliked that he was banished from Rome from 965-966.
973-974	Reign of Pope Benedict VI; pope for 1 year. He was strangled to death.
974-983	Reign of Pope Benedict VII. His pontificate is considered to be a successful one with no intrigue.
983-984	Reign of Pope John XIV; pope for 1 year. He was either starved to death or poisoned while in prison.
985-996	Reign of Pope John XV. His pontificate is considered to be a successful one with no intrigue. See entry below.
993	The first official canonization of a saint by the Catholic Church was performed when Ulrich of Augsburg was made a saint by Pope John XV. Prior to this act, individual bishops had canonized saints, but, since this led to confusion, the practice began to be institutionalized in the Catholic Church. (This does not mean that no saint comes from a time prior to 993, for many canonizations which still stand occurred prior to 993.) In 1170 Pope Alexander III declared that only the Catholic Church could declare someone a saint.
996-999	Reign of Pope Gregory V. His pontificate is considered to be a successful one with no intrigue.
999	By the end of the century, the papacy began to regain its moral footing. The Cluny Reform continued to grow in size and influence.
1009	Hakem, the Caliph (Muslim leader) of Egypt, decided to have the Holy Sepulchre (birth place/cave of Jesus) decimated and Christian pilgrims persecuted. This later helped bring about the Crusades.
1030s	Pilgrimages to Jerusalem increase. This could have been prompted by the belief that Jesus would come back in the year 1033.
	The Big Picture: Pilgrimages to the Holy Land The first recorded pilgrimage to the Holy Lands was by Constantine's mother in the 320s. She directed the building of two churches, in Bethlehem over the supposed birthplace of Jesus (which was believed to be in a cave and the church is known as the Church of the Nativity) and the other near Jerusalem. (Other churches already existed in the area.) (The Church of the Nativity was damaged in 529 and rebuilt in 530.) Pilgrimages were so popular by the 500s that Pope Gregory I had a special hospice built especially for pilgrims to the Holy Land. As part of Charlemagne's European expansion, he ensured the safe passage of pilgrims to the Holy Land (called a “protectorate”). He had churches and monasteries built there. The frequency of pilgrimages increased until the year 1009, when Hakem, the Muslim religious leader (caliph) of Egypt ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (where Jesus was buried) and other Christian buildings. In 1027 the Frankish protectorate ended with the rise of the Byzantine (Christian Orthodox) emperors (which meant that they now protected the Holy Land). Pilgrims continued to come to the Holy Land.
1054	The Great Schism: Pope Leo IX (or his emissaries in Constantinople) and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other. In effect this means that each leader excommunicated the followers of the other; so the Pope excommunicated the Eastern Orthodox Christians and the Patriarch excommunicated the Catholic Christians. To learn more about the split, go here.
	The Big Picture: Mutual Excommunications of Catholics and Orthodox This was not a sudden decision by either man or either faith. For centuries eastern and western Christians had disagreed with each other over theological matters. This disruption will last until 1965 when Pope Paul VI and the Patriarch Athenagoras will meet at the Second Vatican Council. The excommunications were withdrawn at that point. Some of the issues which divided the two sides included the addition of the "filioque" clause to the Nicene Creed, the extent of the pope's authority, and the importance of the Patriarch within Christianity.
1065	Pilgrimmages to Jerusalem continue to be popular. Over 12,000 Christian pilgrims travel to the Holy Land.
1070	The Seljuk Turks (who were Muslims) conquered Jerusalem. The Arabic Muslims had controlled Jerusalem. The Seljuk Turks were less tolerant of the European Christians who came as pilgrims than the Arab Muslims had been.
1071	The Byzantine Emperor appealed to the pope for help in defeating the Seljuk Turks and retaking Palestine (which would have included Jerusalem). It is interesting that the emperor appealed to the pope. This shows the authority and influence the papacy had accrued by this time.
1074	Pope Gregory VII attempted to enlist the aid of European rulers in defeating the Seljuk Turks and capturing the Holy Land. He was unsuccessful.
1074	Pope Gregory VII, in an attempt to purify the Catholic Church, decree that ecclesiastical offices (bishop, etc.) would no longer be purchased or sold and that clergy should remain celibate. This caused a backlash from many noble men.
	The Big Picture: Investiture and the Feudal System Within the feudal system, a large parcel of land would have, for example, one castle and one large church/cathedral. It was vital for the secular and church leaders to get along in order for the system to function well, and so over time the secular leaders increasingly picked the church leaders. This was known as "investiture," the giving or selling of a church office. This is the system that Pope Gregory VII tried to change.
1075	Pope Gregory VII demoted several ecclesiastical offices made by the emperor, Henry IV (German), and demanded that the emperor appear before him in Rome.
1076	Henry IV held his own meeting with his supporters and denounced Gregory VII. Gregory subsequently excommunicated Henry IV. Some German rulers sought to elect a different emperor. Upon hearing that Gregory wanted Henry to change his mind and be reconciled, the rulers told Henry IV not to make decisions until he had received a blessing from the pope. Henry met the pope (who was traveling) at a castle in Canossa. Gregory made Henry wait three days in the snow before agreeing to meet with him. Henry asked to be reconciled. Gregory agreed on the grounds that Henry attend an upcoming council. Henry did not attend and Gregory excommunicated him again. Henry marched on Rome and entered it in 1084. Gregory fled and died in 1085 in exile.
1080	By this year, the Seljuk Turks (who were Muslims) had conquered Anatolia, which lies in present-day western Turkey. This was very close to Constantinople, and at the doorstep of Europe. This caused concern for the Emperor in Constantinople and was another reason for the Crusades.
1085	Pope Gregory VII died. Victor II became pope but only for a little more than a year.
1088	Urban II, the man who initiated the First Crusade, became pope.
1095	November 27: Pope Urban II delivered a speech during the Council of Clermont calling on a Crusade to win back the Holy Land. The speech was so powerful that the people shouted "Deus volt!" or "God wills it!" To see one version of the speech, click here. The Council included 13 archbishops, 225 bishops, 90 abbots and many noblemen and knights. Urban II then traveled throughout France preaching this Crusade.
	The Big Picture: The Special Indulgence & The First Crusade (1095 - app. 1099) A special indulgence was pronounced by the pope: “Whoever, out of pure devotion and not for the purpose of gaining honor or money, shall go to Jerusalem to liberate the Church of God, let that journey be counted in lieu of all penance.” So basically enduring the hardship of the journey of the Crusades equaled all penance for all sins; this was known as a plenary indulgence. This First Crusade consisted of two parts, the first wave and the second wave. In the first wave, Peter the Hermit left with thousands of untrained men and women almost immediately but most of them died along the way or in battles. The second wave consisted of trained knights and fighting men in four armies. While they experienced many defeats, they captured Jerusalem and so much territory that they divided it up into four Crusader states.
1098	A monastery is begun at Citeaux, France. The monks desire to follow the Rule of Benedict more closely. This movement will grow quickly over the next 150 years. By 1200 more than 500 monasteries will be tied in to Citeaux. This movement will be known as the Cistercian Order. Its most famous monk will be Bernard of Clairvaux.
1099	July 15: Jerusalem fell to the Crusaders. The Crusaders killed everyone in Jerusalem, regardless of age or sex. [Author's note: this is an important event to remember because this event has been used by some Muslims to show how Christians act toward others.]
1099	July 29: Pope Urban II died (before hearing that Jerusalem had been captured by the Crusaders.)
late 1000s/ early 1100s	Origination of Scholasticism. This movement to understand Christian doctrine through intellectual pursuits lasted until around 1500. This idea flows from Augustine's maxim to "understand in order to believe, believe in order to understand." The Scholastics did not try to convince people to have faith through reason, but believed that once you have faith you can use reason to develop a deeper understanding of God (as opposed to using experiences or mystical methods).
1109	Anselm of Caterbury died. He was an early proponent of Scholasticism. His most famous "proof" is the ontological argument for God. To read more about it, go here.
1112	Bernard of Clairvaux joined the Cistercian Order. Three years later he opened a monastery in Clairvaux. Eventually he became the greatest proponent of this Order. To read part of Bernard's spiritual classic, On Loving God, go here. [Author's note: this contains one of my most favorite quotes in Church History.]
1144	Sultan of Aleppo captured Edessa; this prompted the Second Crusade. Edessa was located in the northern part of the land the Crusaders had captured and was the capital of the crusader state known as the County of Edessa.
1145	Eugenius III became pope. He was a former student of Bernard of Clairvaux.
1146-47	Second Crusade begins. This Crusade was called to recaptured land that had been lost to the Muslims, namely Edessa (see 1144 above). For the most part, it was unsuccessful. Louis VII of France and many others took up the cross (joined the Crusade) in 1146. Pope Eugenius III enlisted Bernard of Clairvaux to preach this Crusade. This is the one stain on Bernard's character.
1153	Bernard of Clairvaux died.
1170	Dominic was born.
1179	The Third Lateran Council decided that the college of cardinals would decide who replaced a deceased pope.
1181/2	Francis of Assisi born.
1187	The Muslim leader Saladin entered the kingdom of Jerusalem (not Jerusalem itself, yet) and annihilated a Christian army near Lake Tiberias. The king of Jerusalem was made prisoner. Saladin then marched on Jerusalem, which surrendered on September 17.
1189-1192	The Third Crusade. Led by Philip II of France, Richard I (the Lionhearted) of England, and Frederick I (Barbarossa), the Holy Roman Emperor of Germany. Barbarossa died in 1190 while attempting to cross a river on horseback. The overall goal of this Crusade was to recapture Jerusalem. Richard and Philip recaptured much territory in the Holy Land. Philip left due to quarreling with Richard, conditions in France, and his poor health. Nevertheless, Richard was not able to conquer Jerusalem. He had a large enough army to do so, but he knew that he would not be able to hold Jerusalem against the certain counter-attack. Therefore he and Saladin (the Muslim leader) agreed to a truce. Richard's men and Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the holy places in Jerusalem instead.
c.1200	At this point, approximately 500 monasteries throughout Europe were tied in with the mother monastery at Citeaux, France. This Cistercian Order was a major movement for reform in the Catholic Church.
1204	The Fourth Crusade. Originally intended to recapture Jerusalem by going through Egypt, it ended up with the Crusaders diverting to and sacking Constantinople and briefly, although forceably, reuniting the Western and Eastern halves of Christianity (to 1261).
c.1205	Stephen Langton divided the New Testament into chapters. He became the Archbishop of Canterbury and was probably present at the signing of the Magna Carta.
1208	Francis of Assisi gathered his first followers. He also drew up a simple Rule for them to follow.
1210	Pope Innocent III approved the Franciscan Order. They became known as the “Order of Friars Minor.”
	The Big Picture: Priests, Monks/Nuns, & Friars A priest is a man who is ordained, is usually attached to a church/cathedral in some way, and whose supervisor is a bishop. A monk/nun is one who joins a monastic Order and who usually lives in or is attached to a community of monks or nuns (for example, a monastery or convent) and whose supervisor is an Abbot or Abbess. A friar is like a monk except they are more likely to live away from the community (or “friary”) and are more involved in preaching or serving. Orders that have friars are known as “mendicant” Orders. One of the main “jobs” of a priest is to offer the sacraments: baptism, Eucharist (Lord's Supper, reconciliation (going to “confession”), confirmation, marriage, and anointing of the sick (previously known as “last rites”); Holy Orders is the seventh sacrament but the average priest will not officiate at that). Monks and friars may or may not be ordained and able to offer the sacraments, depending on the needs of their Orders.
1212	The Children's Crusade. Groups of children from Germany and France marched to the Mediterranean Sea and expected it to open before them so they could march on to the Holy Land. When it did not do so, the children loaded on ships and sailed off. Some of the ships sank and others took the children and sold them into slavery. [Author's note: Some medieval scholars doubt this took place.]
1215-1221	The Fifth Crusade. The Crusaders tried to go through Egypt, but the army was defeated.
1216	Pope Honorius III approved the Dominican Order. They became known as the Order of Friars Preachers.
1219	Francis of Assisi participated in the Fifth Crusade, but his goal was to preach to the Muslims. He was able to cross over into the Muslim camp in Egypt and talk to the Muslim general and ruler of Egypt. The general did not convert, but, against the wishes of the imams present, did allow Francis to return to the Crusader camp after several days. To read more about Francis and the Fifth Crusade, go here.
1223	In this year, Francis of Assisi and some of his followers created the Second Nativity Scene (the first Nativity Scene being with Jesus). To learn more, go here.
1226	Francis of Assisi died. To read an excerpt from his "Little Flowers of St Francis," go here.
1228	The Sixth Crusade. This Crusade witnessed almost no fighting but was a diplomatic venture. Jerusalem was back in the hands of the Crusaders when Emperor (German king) Frederick II negotiated a peace treaty with the Sultan of Egypt which allowed Frederick to rule over Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem. Frederick crowned himself "King of Jerusalem."
1244	Muslims, fleeing from the invading Mongol army and traveling to Egypt, conquered Jerusalem and the surrounding lands. All the Christians were killed in Jerusalem. It remained under Muslim control until 1917 (during World War I) when it became a British protectorate.
1249-1250	The Seventh Crusade with Louis IX, king of France, attempting to attack Egypt; it failed.
1261	The Empire of Nicea retook Constantinople from the Western Crusaders. It reverted to an Orthodox Church domain as it was in the year 1204 when the Crusaders from the Fourth Crusade captured it.
1263	Egyptian Muslims captured Nazareth.
1265	Egyptian Muslims captured Antioch
1268-1271	The papacy was vacant; no one was pope.
1270	The Eighth Crusade. Louis IX, the king of France, determined to land in Tunisia in order to prepare for an attack on Egypt. Louis died on August 25. His son became the new king, but the Crusade was effectively over.
late 1200s	Marco Polo traveled with his father and uncle to China, other places in the Far East and throughout the Middle East. He published an account of his travels which helped open up lands beyond the Middle East to the Europeans. One note of interest: in his autobiography he stated that, while in India, he saw a monument to the Apostle Thomas.
1291	The last battle of the Crusades occurred between the Muslims of Egypt and the Crusaders. The Crusaders lost and were forced out of the Holy Land at Acre (in present-day northern Israel). The Muslims had 120,000 men and the Crusaders had 20,000 men.
1302	The bull [an official papal declaration] known as Unam Sanctam is issued by Pope Boniface VIII. In it the pope declares that salvation is impossible outside the Catholic Church: “Urged by faith, we are obliged to believe and to maintain that the Church is one, holy, catholic, and also apostolic. We believe in her firmly and we confess with simplicity that outside of her there is neither salvation nor the remission of sins.”
1303	Pope Boniface VIII died. Pope Benedict XI elected.
1304	Pope Benedict XI died. He was the last pope to live in Rome for the next 73 years.
1305	Pope Clement V elected. Clement was not a cardinal, which was unusual, and was not an Italian, being of French heritage. He was living in France when he was elected and he decided to remain in France as pope. This began the French dominance of the papacy which lasted until 1377.
1309	The papal court moved to Avignon (which was then not in France; it is in France today). This is the beginning of the Babylonian Captivity, the 70—year period when the papacy did not reside in Rome but in Avignon.
1314	Pope Clement V died.
1316	Pope John XXII was elected. The conclave (meeting of cardinals for the purpose of electing a pope) was held in France. He remained in Avignon.
1328	John Wycliffe born (in England).
1334	Pope John XXII died. Pope Benedict XII was elected. He remained in Avignon.
1342	Pope Benedict XII died. Pope Clement VI was elected. He remained in Avignon.
1348-1350	The Black Death ravaged Europe. The Black Death caused the deaths of approximately 1/3 of the population of Europe. Clement VI granted forgiveness of sins to everyone who died of the plague.
1352	Pope Clement VI died. Pope Innocent VI was elected. He remained in Avignon.
1362	Pope Innocent VI died. Pope Urban V was elected. He initially lived in Avignon.
1367	Pope Urban V traveled to Rome. This was the first time a pope had been in Rome since 1304, a period of 63 years.
1370	Urban V found that a number of cities in Italy were in revolt, and, prompted by the French cardinals, he returned to Avignon. He died a few months later.
1370	After Pope Urban V died. Pope Gregory XI was elected pope.
1372	John Huss born (in Bohemia, currently the Czech Republic).
1376	Wycliffe's De Civili Domino (On Civil Lordship) circulated. In it he maintained that if clergy were not in a state of grace then the civil authorities could remove them. Condemned in 1377.
1377	Pope Gregory XI condemned 19 of John Wycliffe's propositions while the pope was living in France.
1377	Pope Gregory XI traveled to Rome.
1377-8	Wycliffe's De Ecclesia (On the Church), De Veritate Sacrae Scripturae (On the Truth of the Holy Scriptures), and De Potestate Papae (On the Power of the Pope) circulated. In these three writings he states that the Bible is the sole determinant of doctrine, that no ecclesiastical authority can add anything to the biblical teachings, and that the Pope had no scriptural authority.
1378	Pope Gregory XI died in Rome. The College of Cardinals (who had traveled with Gregory) was forced by the Romans to elect a Roman pope, who took the name of Pope Urban VI. The Cardinals returned to Avignon and elected a French cardinal as pope, who took the name of Pope Clement VII. At this point the Catholic Church has two popes. This is known as the "Western Schism."
1382	The Wycliffe Bible appears (first Bible in English).
1382	Wycliffe's De Apostasia (On Apostasy) circulated. In it he denied that the religious life (monks, nuns, friars, monastic Orders) had any scriptural basis. He also circulated De Eucharistia (On the Eucharist) in which he denied the doctrine of transubstantiation (that the bread and wine of Communion become the body and blood of Jesus).
1384	John Wycliffe died. His followers continued his teachings and became known as the Lollards.
1389	The pope in Rome, Pope Urban VI. Pope Boniface IX was elected and lived in Rome.
1394	The "pope" in Avignon died, Antipope Clement VII. All popes from 1378 who lived in Avignon are refered to as "antipopes." Antipope Benedict XIII was elected (and lived in Avignon).
1400	Around this time, John Huss became aware of John Wycliffe's writings. This occurred because the marriage of Anne, sister of King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, to Richard II of England (in 1382) caused much exchange of culture and writings between Bohemia and England.
1404	Pope Boniface IX died (who lived in Rome). Pope Innocent VII was elected (and lived in Rome).
1406	Pope Innocent VII died (who lived in Rome). Pope Gregory XII was elected (and lived in Rome).
1409	The Council of Pisa met. Its purpose was to provide a platform for the two popes (or one pope and one antipope, which is what the pope in Avignon was considered) to resign with dignity and to elect a new pope. A new pope was elected, Alexander V. But neither of the two other popes agreed to step down. Now the Catholic Church had three popes.
1410	The third pope, Pope Alexander V, died. He is regarded as an antipope. Pope John XXIII was elected to take his place.
1414-8	The Council of Constance (in Germany) met. Gregory XII (who lived in Rome) and John XXIII agreed to step down. Benedict XIII (in Avignon) did not step down. Benedict fled to his homeland of Aragon, where he was recognized as pope. The Council elected Martin V as pope. The Catholic Church was back to one pope (except for Aragon who looked to Benedict XIII as pope; once he died another pope was not elected in Aragon). The Council also condemned over 200 of John Wycliffe's propositions and had his body dug up, and burned. The Council also condemned and executed John Huss by burning him at the stake. He was a church leader and held many of Wycliffe's ideas but on the other side of Europe in Bohemia (current day Czech Republic). He told them he was willing to recant if they could prove that he was wrong by Scripture [author's note: This is reminiscent of Luther's stand at the Diet of Worms.]
1423	The french antipope Benedict XIII died (in Avignon). Antipope Clement VIII was elected pope in Avignon, but in 1429 he abdicated and recognized the Roman pope as the only pope.
1450	Gutenberg's printing press was completed by this year.
1452	Leonardo da Vinci born.
1453	Constantinople was defeated by a Muslim army.
1455	Gutenberg printed 180 copies of a Bible, named the Gutenberg Bible. [author's note: The Bibles do not have page numbers.]
1463	Frederick III (the Wise) born. He became Luther's protector.
1466	Erasmus born. (or in 1469)
1468	Gutenberg died.
1473	Copernicus born. He formulated a theory that the sun was the center of the solar system, not the earth.
1475	Michelangelo born.
1483	Martin Luther born.
1484	Ulrich Zwingli born. Catherine of Aragon, future first wife of Henry VIII, born.
1489	Catherine of Aragon was promised in marriage, via a treaty between England and Spain, to Arthur, Henry VIII's older brother.
1491	George Blaurock born. He was an early Anabaptist leader. Ignatius Loyola born. (or in 1495) Henry VIII born.
1492	Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic. Read more about him and his Christian mission here.
1495	Leonardo da Vinci began painting "The Last Supper." He finished in 1498.
1496	Michelanglo began sculpting the "Pieta." He finished in 1501. Menno Simons born. He was an early Anabaptist leader.
1497	Arthur and Catherine of Aragon betrothed.
1498	Feliz Manz born. He was an early Anabaptist leader.
1499	Katharina von Bora born. She became Martin Luther's wife.